---
title: Legal Accountability for Malicious Cyber Operations
description: Without accountability for malicious operations conducted in cyberspace, hostile actors have little incentive to refrain from cyber operations and are able to act with impunity. Accountability for malicious cyber activity can take different forms. This Policy Brief focuses on options available to States for legal accountability for malicious cyber activity carried out by both State and non-State actors, the extent to which these options have been used so far, and the challenges that may prevent accountability in this context.
---

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# [Legal Accountability for Malicious Cyber Operations](https://www.techandjustice.bsg.ox.ac.uk/insights/legal-accountability-malicious-cyber-operations)

 Written by [OITJ](https://www.techandjustice.bsg.ox.ac.uk/insights/author/oitj) | Oct 6, 2025 11:29:10 AM

## LEGAL ACCOUNTABILITY FOR MALICIOUS CYBER OPERATIONS

#### By Harriet Moynihan (Lead author), philippa webb, and amal clooney

This Policy Brief explores legal accountability options for malicious cyber operations as cyber threats escalate worldwide.

The Brief considers the extent to which States that are the victims of malicious cyber operations could seek accountability through international litigation, arbitration, independent fact-finding mechanisms, or other means of settling disputes peacefully under international law. The Brief uses hypothetical case studies to explore possible avenues for accountability before the International Court of Justice and regional bodies. The Brief also highlights increasingly effective international efforts to investigate and prosecute cybercrime through public-private partnerships and evidence-sharing. The Brief concludes by identifying areas in which the new Oxford Institute for Technology and Justice will conduct further research and capacity-building to strengthen legal accountability for malicious cyber operations.

### Download the full brief

<https://www.techandjustice.bsg.ox.ac.uk/hs/cta/wi/redirect?encryptedPayload=AVxigLLMNuRvAnWirfKwyP0Y28zn0qIiwi53PRq%2BEjIVQit0ru%2Fxkcu0PEZClmTfgcVIlN5un9Qc9ZkoeodUW%2F7mVaXyV0VM0Ahf%2FRdoRHdnKiW1G0utBa4QVZxQ4mP%2FSaIK%2FiHhU7gX1XFYg9oyP3bNqr3mkMcaj%2FsTxnCpJK8jl%2F4LCyIKiOhFYgWs5koKIbfDG2%2FM%2FOdMcN2DihFhXxee2yuCiw5r%2BjhNabQEIVBrSrubI5jf%2BcilzSatntvLgTnY%2F53Du42jwQo%2B4wsV5qv4xZQ4X4KYJr0%3D&webInteractiveContentId=283586792640&portalId=146942990>

 

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